In 1993 Kuz’minov and Osiko identified that the ‘disturbance�?of stoichiometry in LN crystals is largely as a result of not enough oxygen in Nb2O5, used like a raw content initial soften (Czochralski technique) [186]. Accordingly, according to its production technologies, niobium pentoxide can adopt a wide range of compositions Nb2O5−x. https://lithium-niobate-crystal97418.laowaiblog.com/31616957/the-smart-trick-of-lithium-niobate-crystal-that-nobody-is-discussing